Test your square brackets(fluca1978.github.io)
fluca1978.github.io
Test your square brackets
https://fluca1978.github.io/2025/12/10/testAndSquareBrackets.html
67 comments
And especially the ulimit command mentioned, which is mostly unknown to folks nowadays, it seems.
Something I never understood about this: is the pipe necessary, or just to have another symbol contributing to the mayhem?
:(){:&;:};:
Having a pipe will also eat up your system's file table, so it's potentially more efficient.
One way to find out!
I prefer
u(){u|u&};u
such nostalgia. There was a time when you could tell a fair bit about someone if that was in their email signature.
> The reboot was as hard as the lesson.
I'm confused. What happened on reboot?
I'm confused. What happened on reboot?
A hard reboot is where the power goes all the way off, a soft reboot is where it doesn't. A fork bomb makes it very hard / impossible to trigger a soft reboot, forcing you to do a hard reboot.
As an extra sting, a hard reboot can be damaging if the software and hardware is not correctly handling power interruption, which was much more likely in the 90's.
As an extra sting, a hard reboot can be damaging if the software and hardware is not correctly handling power interruption, which was much more likely in the 90's.
To clarify a little - a hard reboot in this case is not performed by issuing a shutdown power off command, which is safe, but by pulling the plug from the wall (the worst shutdown) or holding the switch down (quite bad).
Yeah the days before journaling filesystems, a moment to consider your actions as fsck did its best to clean up the mess you made.
In college I took a database class, it was pretty basic overall as I had been playing with MySQL for a few years at that point. On the final exam I got a 90/100. The test was 10 questions that just had you write SQL to answer the question. I got all the queries 100% correct... except... I didn't put a ";" after each query. On a written test. I'm still a little bitter about that.
I had a course on natural language processing with Prolog, and the first third of the exam was just evaluating Prolog expressions and figuring out what syntax errors had been made. This of course took so long that everyone spent at least two thirds of the time on that one portion...
It was a weird course, though. Because we spent so long learning Prolog, the second half of the course was really rushed - lots of learning about English grammar and syntax trees, and how you could model them in different ways, and then the last lecture was just "oh, by the way, here are all the ways this doesn't work and is a complete dead end - your exam is on the 14th".
IIRC there was a part two to the course, but I think it clashed with something I was more interested in so I never took it. It was cool to learn Prolog, but I wish it had been a whole course on just Prolog and actual present-day use-cases, as opposed to this weird half-and-half course about an approach to NLP that even back then wasn't being pursued with much enthusiasm.
It was a weird course, though. Because we spent so long learning Prolog, the second half of the course was really rushed - lots of learning about English grammar and syntax trees, and how you could model them in different ways, and then the last lecture was just "oh, by the way, here are all the ways this doesn't work and is a complete dead end - your exam is on the 14th".
IIRC there was a part two to the course, but I think it clashed with something I was more interested in so I never took it. It was cool to learn Prolog, but I wish it had been a whole course on just Prolog and actual present-day use-cases, as opposed to this weird half-and-half course about an approach to NLP that even back then wasn't being pursued with much enthusiasm.
The ultimately sad part was the professor in a Sun OS machine.
In a corner with no where to go, giving demerits because his bash was older than he realized.
Reminds me of my college professor that claimed you don’t have to close HTML tags (some you absolutely do) and I proved that you do. Not all of them, but most of them. (Netscape Navigator Days)
In a corner with no where to go, giving demerits because his bash was older than he realized.
Reminds me of my college professor that claimed you don’t have to close HTML tags (some you absolutely do) and I proved that you do. Not all of them, but most of them. (Netscape Navigator Days)
It doesn’t have anything to do with bash (though modern bash may use a built in for `[`). He don’t have the `[` program (usually linked to `test`).
Which is why later versions of bash have a builtin…
Precisely because those older systems didn’t link to it!
So my comment still stands.
Precisely because those older systems didn’t link to it!
So my comment still stands.
> Precisely because those older systems didn’t link to it!
Not to speed up bash scripts? Launching a process for simple if statements such as those checking whether a file exists is fairly expensive.
Not to speed up bash scripts? Launching a process for simple if statements such as those checking whether a file exists is fairly expensive.
Ugh, which is why it became a builtin…
Ya’ll are tracing the same logic of the 90s here.
Ya’ll are tracing the same logic of the 90s here.
[deleted]
Why do you think the prof even used bash? I highly doubt his ancient SunOS machine had a GNU toolchain. `test` and `[` are both POSIX, but if there was no `/bin/[` I doubt the shell in question (original Bourne? Some proprietary Sun shell? Who knows) had it built in either.
Bourne /bin/sh I’m certain of it. If it was Sun OS, it was sh. Was just stating that he was sitting on old while trying to teach new and handing out -1’s for leveraging the new.
Terrible…
Terrible…
Whoa!
/bin/[ as a binary looking for it's own "]" closing bracket!
What a nasty syntax hack!
I wonder what the motivation was for doing this rather than just implementing test expression support directly in the shell?
I just tried and bash also accepts some other odd filenames in place of "[", so you can do:
ln -s /bin/test "-"
ln -s /bin/test "$"
And use either of these in place of "[" (assuming they are on your path). Of course they still expect the closing "]" since that requirement comes from /bin/test.
It's an interesting way to extend bash in a confusing way! You could write a "$" utility that did something else entirely, perhaps looking for a "closing $" too, then write something like:
if $ args $;
then
fi
/bin/[ as a binary looking for it's own "]" closing bracket!
What a nasty syntax hack!
I wonder what the motivation was for doing this rather than just implementing test expression support directly in the shell?
I just tried and bash also accepts some other odd filenames in place of "[", so you can do:
ln -s /bin/test "-"
ln -s /bin/test "$"
And use either of these in place of "[" (assuming they are on your path). Of course they still expect the closing "]" since that requirement comes from /bin/test.
It's an interesting way to extend bash in a confusing way! You could write a "$" utility that did something else entirely, perhaps looking for a "closing $" too, then write something like:
if $ args $;
then
fi
I also love argv[--argc]. Evil genius.
And it's fully legit (from the draft C standard, 5.1.2.2.1, § 2 "Program startup"):
> The parameters argc and argv and the strings pointed to by the argv array shall be modifiable by the program, and retain their last-stored values between program startup and program termination.
https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/WG14/www/docs/n1256.pdf [pdf]
And it's fully legit (from the draft C standard, 5.1.2.2.1, § 2 "Program startup"):
> The parameters argc and argv and the strings pointed to by the argv array shall be modifiable by the program, and retain their last-stored values between program startup and program termination.
https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/WG14/www/docs/n1256.pdf [pdf]
I knew that `[` was notionally the same as `test`, but had never 'checked'. I just assumed `[` was a built-in that conformed rather than them actually being the same.
So I very much enjoyed following along with the article, first seeing that `ls -il /bin/test` and `ls -il /bin/[` are at different inodes, then md5summing and seeing they are different, getting concerned, then the article revealing that is the case now (I'm trusting rather than verifying about the separate builds).
I was then very satisfied to recall that `[[` is a built-in (as `[[` isn't portable between all shells).
So I very much enjoyed following along with the article, first seeing that `ls -il /bin/test` and `ls -il /bin/[` are at different inodes, then md5summing and seeing they are different, getting concerned, then the article revealing that is the case now (I'm trusting rather than verifying about the separate builds).
I was then very satisfied to recall that `[[` is a built-in (as `[[` isn't portable between all shells).
So if you really want to troll someone, you can put them in quotes.
if "[" "$foo" "==" "bar" "]"; then ...Here is the part of the test.c source from V7 Unix:
Another good place to use "test" is if you are not in a control statement and you are just setting $?.
Edit: EQ() is defined as:
main(argc, argv)
char *argv[];
{
ac = argc; av = argv; ap = 1;
if(EQ(argv[0],"[")) {
if(!EQ(argv[--ac],"]"))
synbad("] missing","");
}
argv[ac] = 0;
if (ac<=1) exit(1);
exit(exp()?0:1);
}
Another good place to use "test" is if you are not in a control statement and you are just setting $?.
Edit: EQ() is defined as:
#define EQ(a,b) ((tmp=a)==0?0:(strcmp(tmp,b)==0))
char *tmp;The [[…]] built-in test version was introduced in Peter Korn's korn shell, ksh88 IIRC. As where various other modernized notations like array variables, process substitution or
https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E36784_01/html/E36870/ksh88-1.htm...
While learning the Bourne shell as acstudent, I was rapidly lured by csh and then tcsh, but Tom Christiansen's pamphlet https://everything2.com/title/csh+programming+considered+har...
and (or?) the appearance of Paul Falstad's Z-Shell saved me ;-0
$(command)
https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E36784_01/html/E36870/ksh88-1.htm...
While learning the Bourne shell as acstudent, I was rapidly lured by csh and then tcsh, but Tom Christiansen's pamphlet https://everything2.com/title/csh+programming+considered+har...
and (or?) the appearance of Paul Falstad's Z-Shell saved me ;-0
I don't like bash, and this kind of esoteric, hard-to-remember syntax is a big reason why. Software developers and computer users should want their shell to be easy to use and reason about, just as they reasonably want this from their general-purpose software development languages.
bash is a UNIX legacy tool from the 80s that lingers on in software written today because it's part of the POSIX standard (well, sh, which is close enough), and because generations of developers on UNIX-like systems can be assumed to be familiar with it. I don't think this is a good thing, and I would like to see active efforts to replace the use of bash with better, more-modern scripting languages that provide an easier-to-understand more-reliable experience for users.
bash is a UNIX legacy tool from the 80s that lingers on in software written today because it's part of the POSIX standard (well, sh, which is close enough), and because generations of developers on UNIX-like systems can be assumed to be familiar with it. I don't think this is a good thing, and I would like to see active efforts to replace the use of bash with better, more-modern scripting languages that provide an easier-to-understand more-reliable experience for users.
Here's Greg's Wiki about the difference between [, [[ and test
https://mywiki.wooledge.org/BashFAQ/031
https://mywiki.wooledge.org/BashFAQ/031
> When I was a young, green, university student, I was forced to use test(1) as the only true way to do testing in shell scripting. […] Yeah, I was also forced to not use semicolons as they were evil (according to my professor, any comment unneeded!).
The author’s professor clearly went overboard, but doesn’t this entire anecdote demonstrate the value of teaching it this way? Having green students call the `test` binary provides more insight into how UNIX operates, and gets them using a UNIX mindset. They can discover the syntactic shortcuts later.
The author’s professor clearly went overboard, but doesn’t this entire anecdote demonstrate the value of teaching it this way? Having green students call the `test` binary provides more insight into how UNIX operates, and gets them using a UNIX mindset. They can discover the syntactic shortcuts later.
Hmm. What if we replaced the whole of bash with the contents of /bin?
…you always need some sort of shell to call the binaries, don’t you?
I do think it makes sense to have beginners use `sh` instead of `bash`.
I do think it makes sense to have beginners use `sh` instead of `bash`.
Oh, "once upon a time" I did set emacs to be my login "shell" and emacs can call other binaries via execve, handle sub processes, etc. Worked as expected.
Getting a Linux or Unix system to boot without a proper shell would be another complication, so a system completely without a she'll? I expect that to either be easy nor useful.
Getting a Linux or Unix system to boot without a proper shell would be another complication, so a system completely without a she'll? I expect that to either be easy nor useful.
[deleted]
Nowadays [ is a builtin. The subprocess for a simple branch would be excessive overhead.
It is indeed a builtin, but `/bin/[` still exists for compatibility reasons!
$ which [
/bin/[
$ type [
[ is a shell builtin
$ which test
/bin/test
$ type test
test is a shell builtinRight, that's also a good reminder that the builtin `command -V` is typically what you want whenever you use not-always-builtin `which` ;)
I've been spending too much time researching home improvement and thought this was going to be about deck-building.
The Objective-C folks probably are chuckling their square brackets send messages.
To me the salient part is that he had an exam on shell scripts?!
I did my degree in 2012-2015; and we had a mandatory first year course on *nix, which IIRC included a test on shell scripting.
Its not really theoretical or applied CS, but it is a core skill for meaningfully doing applied CS.
Its not really theoretical or applied CS, but it is a core skill for meaningfully doing applied CS.
Now do [ ... ] and [[ ... ]]
I'm still not sure when to use one or the other. I use double brackets by default until something doesn't work.
I'm still not sure when to use one or the other. I use double brackets by default until something doesn't work.
[[...]] is non-portable and has an extremely quirky corner case with variable expansion in arithmetic contexts, what's not to love?
I'm intrigued - any info on that?
I personally use ((...)) for arithmetic tests and [[...]] for all other tests as I just target new versions of BASH and don't care much about POSIX compatibility.
I personally use ((...)) for arithmetic tests and [[...]] for all other tests as I just target new versions of BASH and don't care much about POSIX compatibility.
This is completely safe: [ "${payload}" -eq 42 ]
This can evaluate arbitrary code: [[ "${payload}" -eq 42 ]]
Here is one example of a malicious payload:
This can evaluate arbitrary code: [[ "${payload}" -eq 42 ]]
Here is one example of a malicious payload:
payload='a[$(touch /tmp/pwned)]'Thanks.
Now I need to figure out whether (( payload == 42 )) is safe.
Now I need to figure out whether (( payload == 42 )) is safe.
It appears not.
It also does wildcards though, with POSIX you'll need a case statement for that.
If shipping something that must run on sh, check your life choices and use [ - otherwise [[ is better.
Honestly though I’ve been much happier since I stopped writing anything complex enough to have conditionals in Shell. Using a real scripting language like Ruby, Python, even PHP or Perl if you know them, is better.
In the Ruby case I just use `%x( … )` when I need to run shell commands (there are some things shell does great like passing pipelines of text through 5 programs) and let the logic part be in Ruby.
Honestly though I’ve been much happier since I stopped writing anything complex enough to have conditionals in Shell. Using a real scripting language like Ruby, Python, even PHP or Perl if you know them, is better.
In the Ruby case I just use `%x( … )` when I need to run shell commands (there are some things shell does great like passing pipelines of text through 5 programs) and let the logic part be in Ruby.
Use ((...)) for arithmetic tests and [[...]] for other tests. [...] is for POSIX compatibility and not as useful as [[...]] though I don't remember the specifics.
[[ ... ]] supports regex comparisons and lets you combine multiple conditions in a single bracket group using && and || instead of remembering to use -a / -o.
I usually default to [ ... ] unless I need features that double brackets provide.
I usually default to [ ... ] unless I need features that double brackets provide.
Double brackets are less portable. For example musl linux does not come with bash by default, and your script fails.
When unsure, use shellcheck.
When unsure, use shellcheck.
You mean shellcheck will detect when single brackets won't be enough? I've also just defaulted to double because I never really looked into it
Yeah, if you set the shebang `#!/bin/sh` (which is portable), shellcheck will complain about double brackets. It also helps you do quoting correctly when using single brackets.
I see. I've always just used `#!/usr/env/bin bash`. I wonder if there's a directive to hint at incompatibilities without changing it? I'll have to see.
And this isn't meant snarkily - why should I care if my scripts are portable? I've worked on a number of different devices and types but have seemingly always had access to bash.
And this isn't meant snarkily - why should I care if my scripts are portable? I've worked on a number of different devices and types but have seemingly always had access to bash.
[[ is built in, so "test[" as an /usr/bin artifact never exists? (What to call that proposed program, test2, or test[ ?)
yeah, if [ is a command in /bin/ what is [[ ?
A builtin part of the shell, just like `if` and `then` and `fi`. Not all shells have `[[`, the one that doesn't which people unknowingly run into most is probably `dash` as used by Alpine Linux. POSIX doesn't require `[[` in a shell, BASH & Zsh support it but others often don't.
right so "[" is a file in /bin, "[[" is implicitly part of the shell, so that's as bad as I thought
My curiosity piqued, I pasted it into the shell on my terminal in a pure example of FAFO. The poor little Sparc 5 I was using ground to a halt over the course of about ten seconds. The reboot was as hard as the lesson. xD